Whether you’re looking for faster target acquisition on your pistol or more range on your turkey gun, red dot sights can increase your efficacy and range.

While red dots vary in size, they seem to largely inhabit three categories: micro, small to mid-size, and large, closed emitters. Each category serves a function, depending on a shooter’s needs, but quality can also determine this as well (a lot of early, cheap red dots were unnecessarily bulky).

The Vortex Venom delicately walks the line between micro and mid-size red dots. While it’s not a micro dot by recent standards (such as the Vortex Defender or Holosun’s line of microdots), the Vortex Venom is an unobtrusive optic for your turkey gun, but it also won’t feel like a brick if you decide to mount it on your pistol.

In short: The Vortex Venom is an affordable and streamlined red dot with a large sight window that makes it ideal for a variety of shooting situations.

Vortex Venom Red Dot: Review

Testing the Vortex Venom

This turkey season, I mounted the Vortex Venom on one of my Remington 870s. It comes with a Weaver/Picatinny mount and mounting screws. Sighting in the Venom required a learning curve. I spent several shells before noticing that the red dot wasn’t moving when I adjusted the elevation.

With the shotgun in a rest, I observed the red dot and made a full rotation and back before it finally moved, and I had it dialed in a few shells later. I’ve had zero issues out of it since, but it’s worth noting.

Dot Brightness and Clarity

Vortex offers the Venom in 6 MOA and 3 MOA configurations. With shots inside 40 yards, I’m running the 6 MOA on my turkey gun. Within that distance, you won’t have to worry about it covering up a turkey head, and the dot is plenty bright for low light conditions or extremely sunny days.

The Venom includes two brightness modes, Auto and Manual. Dot brightness in Auto mode adjusts to the ambient lighting conditions and power down after 14 hours of inactivity. You can engage Auto mode by holding the up arrow until the dot flashes three times, while Manual mode engages after the dot flashes twice.

The dot exhibits a small bloom and a significant starburst effect on higher settings, but I didn’t notice any parallax within 100 yards. On lower settings, the Venom produces a bright, crisp dot.

Durability

I haven’t had any issues with the Venom holding its zero. After running through various target loads and a box of Winchester Longbeard XRs, and burying the Venom in mud to brace a fall, the dot hasn’t moved. Considering that my gun takes a beating throughout turkey season, I’ve been pleased with the lack of adjustments I’ve had to make since the initial sight in.

Where the Vortex Venom Shines

The streamlined design makes the Vortex Venom ideal when you need to shave weight or space. Recessed windage and elevation adjustments mean you don’t have to worry about large dials getting bumped or snagged on brush. The large sight window, which has a blue tint, makes target acquisition (like picking out a turkey head through the timber) a breeze.

For less than $250, this red dot is hard to beat, especially since it’s covered by Vortex’s VIP warranty.

Where the Vortex Venom Can Improve

You can’t feel any clicks when you make adjustments to the windage and elevation, so a clear, tactile response would be nice.

The adjustment mishap I had while sighting in the red dot was a bit unsettling, but I haven’t had any issues with it since. It’s possible an obstruction, like an epoxy, was blocking the housing and eventually broke free once I cranked down on the turret. For what it’s worth, I’ve been running this setup since it happened, and I’ve even checked the zero a couple of times just to be safe.

Vortex Venom Red Dot: Final Thoughts

The Vortex Venom inhabits that class of red dots that offers intuitive and rugged features at a budget price. Whether you’re chasing turkeys or adding an optic to your bear gun, you should consider the Venom as an affordable and capable option.

As I mentioned in my previous articles on patterning my shotgun, the basics of turkey hunting, and camouflaging my shotgun, I’m in the process of preparing for an upcoming turkey hunt during Memorial Day weekend. For my next article in my series on turkey hunting, I’m writing about the differences between some of the various types of turkey calls commonly used by turkey hunters. Since spring turkey season overlaps with mating season for turkeys in most of the United States, imitating turkey vocalizations is the most popular and most effective technique used by turkey hunters to call in a big gobbler. There are a wide variety of turkey calls available on the market today, and I hope to provide some useful information on the advantages and disadvantages of each in this article.

Before we begin, please note that I’m not necessarily endorsing any particular type or brand of turkey call in this article. Indeed, I haven’t actually used any of them on a turkey hunt yet, so I’m not really in a position to say which type or brand works “best.” Instead, I’m merely presenting some of the pros and cons of each type of call as well as some things to consider when getting ready to purchase one.

The push button call is probably the easiest turkey call to use. Made from wood (primarily walnut) and/or plastic, push button calls can produce realistic sounds imitating turkey hen clucks, purrs, and yelps. Since they are so easy to use, push button calls are very popular among new turkey hunters. Another advantage of the push button call is that a hunter can also easily operate one with only one hand, or even mount it on the stock of a shotgun for quick and easy access.

Unfortunately, push button turkey calls are very sensitive to moisture. While turkeys will still move during a spring rain shower, a little rain can silence a push button call and ruin a hunt for a hunter who relies solely upon push button calls. Additionally, push button calls can present problems for a hunter going after turkeys subject to heavy hunting pressure. Since they are so popular, and since push button calls do not produce quite as wide of a variety of sounds as other turkey calls (particularly diaphragm or pot and striker calls), mature gobblers may quickly wise up and become less responsive to a hunter using a push button call midway through the season.

Like the push button call, the box call is also extremely popular and very easy to use. Box calls are most often made of wood such as walnut, cedar, or mahogany, among others. However, some box calls are now made out of metal. In the hands of a skilled caller, a box call can produce a very wide variety of turkey vocalizations. Additionally, box calls are great for calling over long distances, as they can mimic turkey vocalizations at loud, as well as soft volumes.

Like push button calls, box calls are also sensitive to moisture and don’t work nearly as well when wet. However, this is not as big of a problem as it used to be because some companies now manufacture waterproof box calls (like the call pictured above). Another problem with box calls is that most of them require two hands to operate. This makes it more difficult for a hunter to transition from operating the call to aiming his or her shotgun without being spotted by a sharp eyed gobbler.

Finally, box calls have the same disadvantage as box calls when hunting heavily pressured turkeys. Since they are so popular, turkeys sometimes learn what a box call sounds like and become less responsive to them. Since the goal of a hunter is to sound like a turkey, not a turkey hunter, this can be a problem.

Pot and striker calls consist of a round disc, usually made from glass, slate, or ceramic materials, and a striker usually made of wood, aluminum, or carbon. To use, apply pressure to the pot with the striker at varying pressures, angles, and patterns to create different sounds. Using these calls, a skilled caller can produce a dizzying array of turkey calls. Additionally, most pot and striker calls are much more tolerant of wet conditions than box or push button calls are.

While pot and striker calls are great options for a turkey hunter, they are not without disadvantages. Like a box call, pot and striker calls have the disadvantage that they require two hands to operate. Additionally, they are more difficult to learn to use effectively when compared to push button calls or box calls.

Also known as mouth calls, diaphragm calls are small, horseshoe shaped calls with rubber or latex reeds that vibrate when air is forced across them. Many different manufacturers produce diaphragm calls in a wide variety of variations that can imitate virtually any turkey vocalization. Diaphragm calls are inexpensive, small, lightweight, and weatherproof. They also do not require the hunter to use his or her hands for operation. This significantly cuts down on movement and allows the hunter to use the call right up until the point that they take the shot without spooking the bird.

The biggest disadvantage to the diaphragm call is that they are the most difficult turkey calls for a hunter to learn how to use properly. Indeed, many experienced and successful turkey hunters do not know how to use a diaphragm call to its fullest potential. The other disadvantage to a diaphragm call is that they are not as loud as other turkey calls, especially box calls.

As you can see, each of the different types of turkey calls I described here fits into a particular niche. None is perfect, but they can complement each other very well if used appropriately. As a result, instead of looking for the “best” call, it’s probably a better idea for a turkey hunter to purchase and master the use of 2-3 different turkey calls. This will give the hunter several options if he or she out in turkey hunting and gets caught in a rain shower or the turkeys stop responding to a particular call. By having a different, but complementary, call on hand that he or she can use well, that hunter may be able to change things up and end the hunt with a big gobbler on the ground.

Make sure you follow The Big Game Hunting Blog on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and YouTube.

NEXT: BEST 6.5 CREEDMOOR AMMO FOR HUNTING ELK, DEER, AND OTHER BIG GAME

Welcome! Please view, share, and enjoy the copyrighted, complete solution to the Fenn quest. Visual independent proof (“VIP”) exists in three different forms, while the site determined by the poem is here.

The readiest proof is found here or in the image shown on this page, which is the quest solution. The image combines an overlay of the illustration by Polt found in the epilogue of The Thrill of the Chase: A Memoir by Fenn, published in January 2010, onto an outdoor photo of the site I took in August 2018. That match proves that Fenn, who commissioned the illustration, was at the site of the photo while creating the quest.

In that book, where “EPILOGUE” heads the last chapter title page, the letters “LOG” are centered above the illustration. The Greek root of “epilogue” is “ἐπί” or “epi” meaning “above.” In often referencing “under a log” or “turning over a log” while searching, Fenn refers to this image, not to the natural remains of a tree. The key image under, or labeled by, the letters “LOG,” when overlaid onto the correct photo and faded, proves the correct site, again underneath.

More independent proof is found here in the clear connections between the site and the Colorado state seal. The three VIPs often interconnect. For example, the fasces in the state seal matches the “ax in the wood” portion of the overlay image, while the Fenn directive to “turn over a log” matches the key 1794 Battle of Fallen Timbers, fought near Toledo.

Details are found in the full solution.

Only the correct site and its surroundings were visited in the context of the quest. Identifying the area was straightforward. The difficulty lay first in narrowing down the site, which took about one year, then in perceiving that the quest is not a scavenger hunt for treasure but rather a test of grit: of character, disentitlement, productivity, and resilience in adversity, culminating in independent proof. Creating at least one form of independent proof took over two years, and creating others took almost three.

The rugged site, dominated by willows, is of limited extent, about 1 acre (0.4 ha), yet multiple, thorough searches yielded nothing. Anyone is welcome to explore and search the site. Outdoor safety precautions in all particulars must be taken as the site is at 9,000 feet (2,743 m) of altitude and is accessed only by wading a river.

The solution is publicly revealed. To be clear, the quest is solved, the answer to the puzzle is independently proved, and treasure is absent at the site.

Three forms of VIP would not be needed if treasure, proof enough, were present. The status of treasure is unknown. In my opinion, a real treasure exists, and Fenn securely retains it to award as he sees fit — which is also common sense: the poem ends, “I give you title to the gold.” Many “treasure searchers” might misunderstand the quest, setting the wrong success standard and guaranteeing failure by insisting on finding and retrieving a literal treasure, when the “treasure in the woods” is figurative or metaphorical. A metaphorical test of grit solved by creativity and reference to history, literature, and images is consistent with the personal profile of a combat pilot turned artist and best-selling author. Literally abandoning treasure in the woods, a foolish act inconsistent with a brilliant man, also would deprive Fenn of control over the quest.

Many thanks to Fenn, Polt, family, friends, and public safety authorities. Fenn is a man of service, creativity, and intellect, whom I respect and admire. I am humbled to have solved his amazing quest and would be privileged to meet him in person. We have never mutually corresponded. My name and contact are found atop this page and at the bottom of the cover page of the solution document.

“If I cannot move heaven, I will raise hell.” – Virgil, The Aeneid of Virgil, Book Seven, Line 312

Massachusetts hunters are preparing for the approaching spring turkey season. Subject to limitations, the season will last for several weeks and include the Youth Turkey Hunt Day. This article will go through the specifics of the Massachusetts turkey season, including crucial dates, rules, and advice on a productive hunt. So gather your supplies, and let’s begin!

Massachusetts Turkey Season 2024

During this season, a hunting or sports license, a turkey permit, and three turkey tags are needed to hunt wild turkeys in Massachusetts. For the eleventh season, beginning in April, turkey hunting will also be permitted on Cape Cod National Seashore.

MA Youth Turkey Season

MA Youth Turkey SeasonSeason Start DateSeason End Date Big Game Zones 1-13 (Youth Hunt:)22-Apr22-Apr

MA Spring Turkey Season

MA Sping Turkey SeasonSeason Start DateSeason End Date Big Game (Zones 1-13)24-Apr20-May

MA Fall Turkey Season

MA Fall Turkey SeasonHunting Season Start DateHunting Season End Date Big Game (Zones 10-13***)2-Oct25-Nov Big Game (Zones 1-9***)16-Oct25-Nov

From October 16 through October 28, 2024, hunters may use shotguns, muzzleloading shotguns, and archery tools during the autumn turkey hunting season in wildlife management zones 1 through 13. However, only archery gear is permitted during specific times of the fall season. The tables that are presented offer further information on these times.

Permitted EquipmentStart DatesEnd Dates WMZ 1-9 No fall turkey hunting2-Oct14-Oct Shotgun, muzzleloading16-Oct28-Oct Archery only30-Oct25-Nov WMZ 10-13 Archery only2-Oct14-Oct Shotgun, muzzleloading, archery16-Oct28-Oct Archery only30-Oct25-Nov

Bag Limits

SeasonBag LimitNotes Spring2 bearded birds2 birds may be harvested on the same day Fall1 turkey of either sex

Turkey Licenses

LicensesFees Turkey Permit, Resident$10.00 Turkey Permit, Non-resident$15.00 Resident Hunting$29.50 Resident Hunting (Age 65-69)$14.75

Note: For the entire Hunting license list, view it on the mass.gov website

Hunting Regulations

• Massachusetts turkey hunters need licenses and permits. Massachusetts requires a Hunting or Sporting License, a Turkey permit, and a Safety sticker. Non-residents require a Big game license, Turkey permission, and a Safety sticker. Turkey hunting with a shotgun or muzzleloader requires a safety sticker. Sighting down the barrel requires this sticker. Visit any MassWildlife office or contact mass.wildlife@mass.gov to get a new sticker.

• Turkey hunting equipment rules vary in spring. Shotgun hunting is limited to gauge 10 and shot size #4. Smoothbore shotguns may only be.775 calibers and #4 shot size for muzzleloader hunting. Archery equipment must have a draw weight of at least 40 lbs at 28 inches or peak draw and well-sharpened steel broadhead blades of at least 7/8 inches. Expanding broadheads and portable releases are permitted, but airbows are not. Permitted disabled hunters may use crossbows.

• During the autumn turkey season in Massachusetts, hunters must wear blaze orange caps in Wildlife Management Areas stocked with pheasants or quail.

• Massachusetts, licensed turkey hunters may call turkeys for other hunters but cannot carry firearms or archery equipment if they have surpassed the season limit. Even without tags, the caller needs a license and Turkey permission. Massachusetts turkey hunters cannot utilize electronic calls, dogs, bait, drive or herd birds, or live decoys.

• Hunters must rescue and utilize dead or injured game animals. The animal must be maintained or sent to someone else for processing. Damaged, decaying, ill, or contaminated animals are exempt from this regulation.

• Massachusetts residents must report turkey harvests within 48 hours at a check station or online via MassFishHunt. After harvesting the turkey, you must affix the paper tag from your permit to the carcass and keep it intact until it is reported and processed for food or taxidermy. Online harvesters must put their confirmation number on the carcass tag.

• Massachusetts has spring and fall turkey seasons. Spring runs from the final Monday of April to the fourth Saturday. Wildlife management zones (WMZs) affect fall. WMZ 1-9’s season runs from the 6th Monday before Thanksgiving to the Saturday after. WMZ 10-13’s season runs from the 8th Monday before Thanksgiving to the Saturday after. Sunday hunting is prohibited. There is a special kids’ turkey hunt on the Saturday before spring. This hunt requires the young turkey program and Basic hunter education.

Note: For Complete Massachusetts Turkey hunting regulation, you review the Commonwealth of Massachusetts website

FAQ: Turkey Season in Massachusetts

So you have your rifle but need a way to stabilize your rifle to make clean, accurate shots? Well, look no further than a rifle bipod! In this guide, we dive into the best rifle bipod for your setup and needs.

I’ll start with some of the market’s top bipod options and then see the best options for different applications.

Caldwell XLA Pivot

The Caldwell XLA pivot bipod is a compact, lightweight aluminum bipod made for bolt action rifles and AR-15 style rifles.

The XLA pivot is a budget bipod but not a low-quality bipod.

The legs of the bipod are made of aluminum and the other parts are steel.

This bipod has two external springs that allow the legs to flip down and be resecured in the up position to make moving with the bipod easier.

Javelin Spartan Lite

The Javelin Spartan Lite is an extremely simple bipod made by Spartan Precision Equipment.

The Javelin Spartan Lite is a three-piece system that allows you to remove the legs of the bipod via a screw-on and off-based system to achieve your preferred length.

The Javelin Spartan Lite is very accurately named: it’s lite. The short-leg version is only 4.6 ounces.

The disadvantage to the Javelin system is the legs are fixed height.

The attachment system for the Javelin is supplied with a classic rifle adapter kit, which uses the sling stud that is included on most rifles.

The Javelin provides a great deal of stability since the legs are fixed height and stationery.

Harris Series Bipod

The Harris Bipod is probably one of the most well-known rifle bipods on the market. In fact, when you ask someone what bipod you should buy they are likely to recommend to you a Harris Series bipod.

The Harris bipods have earned their stripes and are extremely well known. The Harris excels at what it is for its price point. Sitting right around the $100 range, it is affordable and feature-packed.

The Harris bipod has several ways to attach it to a rifle, including a QD mount system.

One thing to note about the Harris series is the two external springs that function the same way the Caldwell bipods do. The springs all for retraction and deployment of the bipods.

This made for the perfect pairing with my Thompson Center Compass.

Magpul Rifle Bipod

The Magpul rifle bipod is my go-to bipod on my Ruger American Hunter rifle. I love this bipod, but it does have some drawbacks.

The price of the Magpul bipod is in line with other mid-tier rifle bipods. At around the $100 mark, it is incredibly competitive.

Magpul is known for its polymer products, so it’s not a huge shock that the Magpul bipod has a substantial amount of polymer in the design.

They even have a MOE version that is entirely polymer. I’ll talk about that next.

The Magpul bipod is highly compact and uses a button deployment system to allow you to adjust the height of the bipod legs.

While the Magpul bipod isn’t the lightest of the list it is the lightest with its features.

Magpul MOE Bipod

The Magpul MOE bipod is the all-polymer version of the Magpul Rifle Bipod. You may ask, why would I want a polymer bipod?

Two main things: weight and price.

The price of the polymer bipod is $74.95, which is $30-40 cheaper than its metal counterpart.

While it still provides many of the same features, the polymer is not as strong (some say sturdy) as metal.

What it loses in strength, it gains in weight reduction. The MOE bipod is only 8 ounces.

Warne Precision Bipod

Warne Precision is at the higher end of this list but is feature-packed and high-quality.

This bipod is nice because it can be adjusted from the shooting position and has rapid leg deployment and no external springs.

The Warne bipod is excellent for nearing any application from hunting to competition, and everything in between brings excellent stability.

With that stability comes a pretty sizeable cost. At $335, it isn’t a cheap option but very likely the best option for features.

Accu Shot Atlas Bipod

B&T Industries makes the Accu Shot one of the most popular high-end bipods, with everyone from recreational hunters to tier 1 military units using it.

It would be considered the current gold standard of weapon bipods.

ACCU-TAC BR-4

The ACCU-TAC BR-4 is one of the best-looking and feature-packed bi-pods on the market today.

Don’t get this confused with the Accu-Shot; they are entirely different companies.

The Accu-Tac will run on the high end of the price points for rifle bi-pods, but you get many features and an extremely high-quality design.

Adjusting the Accu-Tac Bi-Pod

The Accu-Tac B4 is easily adjusted for height and uneven surfaces. The legs are extremely easy to deploy you simply pull out and set them to the angle that works best.

You can then adjust the up-and-down height of the bi-pod by pulling down on the bottom of the Accu-Tac legs. To retract the legs, press the adjustment button on the side of the bipod.

This design is incredibly simple and one of my favorite bipod designs. It’s sturdy and easy to use.

Attaching the Accu-Tac Bi-Pod

The Accu-Tac BR-4 Bi-Pod attaches via a Picatinny rail attachment that can be adjusted easily and is on a QD mount system.

The QD mount makes it easy to attach and detach your bi-pod if you need it removed. This bi-pod does store well, but if you want to cut down the overall weight of your gun, you may want to remove it for certain applications.

In my opinion, the Accu-Tac BR-4 is one of the best rifle bipods on the mark!

MDT GRND-POD

The MDT GRND-POD bipod is a cutting-edge accessory designed to enhance the stability and accuracy of rifles, making it a favored choice among avid marksmen and professional shooters.

Crafted with precision engineering and high-quality materials, this bipod offers exceptional performance in a variety of shooting conditions.

Its versatility is a standout feature, as it provides both fixed and pivoting modes, allowing shooters to adapt to different shooting scenarios quickly.

Whether you’re in a prone position or shooting from a bench, the MDT GRND-POD delivers unmatched stability, ensuring consistent shot placement.

One of the standout features of the MDT GRND-POD is its robust construction.

It is built to withstand the rigors of the field and can endure harsh environmental conditions.

The bipod’s legs are adjustable, allowing for precise height customization to accommodate various shooting situations and terrains.

Quick and effortless deployment is possible thanks to its user-friendly design, ensuring shooters spend less time setting up and more time focusing on their targets.

With the MDT GRND-POD bipod, shooters can significantly improve their shooting accuracy, making it an indispensable tool for those who demand peak performance from their rifles.

How to Choose a Rifle Bipod

Choosing the best rifle bipod for your rifle is a crucial decision that can significantly impact your shooting experience and accuracy.

With numerous options available on the market, it’s essential to consider several key factors to make an informed choice.

1. Bipod Type: There are primarily two types of bipods: fixed and pivoting. Fixed bipods offer stability but limited flexibility in target tracking. Pivoting bipods provide the ability to pan and tilt, allowing for smoother tracking of moving targets. Consider your shooting style and the types of situations you’ll encounter when choosing between these two types.
2. Height Adjustment: Look for a bipod with adjustable leg height. This feature allows you to adapt to various terrains and shooting positions, such as prone, sitting, or bench shooting. Telescoping legs or quick-release mechanisms are beneficial for easy and quick height adjustments.
3. Build Quality: Invest in a bipod made from durable materials like aluminum or steel. Quality construction ensures longevity and reliability, even in rugged conditions. Weather-resistant coatings can also protect your bipod from the elements.
4. Attachment Method: Consider how the bipod attaches to your rifle. Picatinny rail or swivel stud mounts are common options. Ensure compatibility with your rifle’s attachment points.
5. Leg Design: The shape and design of the bipod legs can affect stability. Some bipods feature wider, non-slip rubber feet or spiked feet for better grip on various surfaces.
6. Weight: The weight of your bipod can impact portability. For hunting or long-distance shooting, a lightweight option might be preferable. However, for benchrest shooting or precision shooting, a heavier, more stable bipod may be ideal.
7. Price: Quality bipods come in a range of prices. While it’s tempting to opt for the most budget-friendly option, investing in a reputable brand and model often pays off in terms of durability and performance.
8. User-Friendliness: Look for features that enhance ease of use, such as quick-deploy legs or one-handed adjustments. These can be especially handy in fast-paced shooting situations.
9. Reviews and Recommendations: Seek out reviews from experienced shooters and consider their recommendations. Online forums and user reviews can provide valuable insights into the performance and reliability of specific bipods.
10. Brand Reputation: Well-known brands in the shooting industry often have a track record of producing quality accessories. Research the reputation of the brand you’re considering to ensure you’re getting a reliable product.

Ultimately, the choice of a bipod for your rifle should align with your shooting needs and preferences.

Taking the time to evaluate these factors will help you select a bipod that enhances your shooting experience and improves your accuracy in the field or at the range.

Hunting Rifle Bipods

Nearly any bipod can be a hunting bipod but to drill down and find the best hunting rifle bipod you need to know what type of hunting you’ll be doing.

For example, if you are hunting from a tree stand or climbing stand,rr a bipod either doesn’t make much sense or will need to be very specific to your needs since there typically isn’t much to rest your bipod legs on in a climbing stand.

In short, determining what will work as the best rifle bipod for hunting will largely depend on how you plan to hunt.

Best Budget Bipod Rifle

My best budget bipod recommendation will likely come as no surprise as this company has a long-standing reputation.

The Magpul MOE bipod takes the budget best rifle bipod category handily. With its $75 price tag and solid performance, it takes the gold on budget and quality.

Best Rifle Bipod for Long Range Shooting

The Harris series of bipods are the most popular among professional shooters; having over 45% of the professional shooting market, they are #1 for long-range shooting.

While they may not be the best or the most expensive, they are certainly the most popular when it comes to the best rifle bipod.

By Dr. David Wartinbee, for the Redoubt Reporter

At this time of the year in Alaska, a drive of more than a couple hundred miles will involve some time during darkness. While heading north to visit friends during the holidays, I spotted a small, bright spot in the roadway ahead.

As my lights got closer, a huge, brown ungulate appeared surrounding that tiny light spot. I slowed appropriately. A few miles farther down the road, a pair of bright spots appeared on one side of the road. A second later I was able to see the faintly lit image of a lynx crossing the road. I had first seen both of these animals because of their tapetum lucidum reflecting my headlight illumination.

While many are familiar with the phrase, “A deer-in-the-headlights look,” not as many may realize there is an interesting anatomical basis for this situation. Most nocturnal animals, like dogs, cats, deer, etc., will demonstrate “eye shine” when a bright light is shown on them at night. What happens is the light entering the animal’s eyeball is being reflected right back at us as if there were a mirror in there. The mirror analogy is actually pretty close to what is happening.

In order to understand how the tapetum lucidum works, we have to know a little about the layers inside the eyeball itself. First, the retina is the thin, innermost layer of the eye and it contains the light-sensitive cells called rods and cones, and lots of blood vessels. In very close proximity to the rods and cones is a black layer called the choroid.

The important choroid layer absorbs light that has just passed by the light-sensitive

rods and cones. In humans that do not have a heavily pigmented choroids, like albinos, to absorb the passing rays, light gets reflected and scattered inside the eyeball. These individuals suffer with visual difficulties and even small amounts of light are blindingly bright.

In nocturnal animals with a tapetum lucidum, the choroid, or a special portion of the retina, will act as a slight reflector. The actual tapetum lucidum can vary in its composition depending on the specific animal. Since there are so many different animals that exhibit “eye shine,” it is easy to understand that there are many different kinds of reflective layers.

In some, it is composed of a special layer of iridescent crystals like guanine, or in others it might be a layer of cells with reflective fibers.

No matter how the reflection by the tapetum is accomplished, the incoming light is reflected right back past the very rods and cones that it originally passed. This essentially gives the rods and cones a second chance to detect the same light rays. That simple reflection greatly enhances night vision.

Also, by reflecting the light exactly back from where it came, the animal is able to create a crisp visual image rather than getting a blurry image that would occur if the light scattered randomly within the eyeball. It is believed that cats can see about nine times better at night than we can, since they have a tapetum and we do not.

The color of the reflective “eye shine” will vary according to the animal. Many reptiles

show bright red eye shine, while mammals vary from yellow, white, blue and green. There are variations even within the same species and there are lots of examples of one eye reflecting back one color while the other eye reflects back a different color. Along with birds, some fish, like walleye, have a tapetum.

Most primates — like humans — pigs, kangaroos and other day-active animals do not have a tapetum lucidum. Accordingly, our night vision is mediocre compared to those animals that are active at night.

Humans can produce a confusing situation known in the photography arena as “red eye.” This occurs when a flash of light illuminates the blood vessel-rich retina in the back of the eye and the eyes appear to be red. There is no tapetum involved here, just illumination of blood vessels. If the source of the flash were somewhere other than on the camera, there would be no “red eye.”

Imagine how our flash pictures might look if we had chartreuse-colored blood?

Another unusual situation in humans and some animals is the white glow that can appear in the eyes. This “eye glow” occurs when there are cataracts. The glow is caused by illumination of the crystals embedded within the lens of the eye and, again, is not caused by a tapetum.

Moose certainly have a tapetum lucidum, but I have wondered why we don’t often see the same bright headlight reflection from moose eyes that can be seen from smaller animals like dogs or cats. The answer probably comes from several different reasons.

First, moose are large animals and their eyes are often held above the level where our headlights are aimed. Because a moose’s eyes are on extreme sides of its head, it is difficult to see both of their eyes at the same time. So we most commonly get a reflection from only one eye at a time.

I have not been able to find much documentation on the size of a moose tapetum compared with other animals. However, after shining a bright flashlight beam at a moose from various angles, I have discovered that the tapetum in a moose’s eye is mostly in the very back of the eyeball.

When the moose is at right angles to you, your lights are not striking the tapetum, and you only get a slight “red-eye” reflection.

Only when the moose is looking directly at you, and they don’t do this all that often, will you see the bright, two-eyed reflection.

So, as a moose crosses the road, you and I get a single, slight reddish glow from an eye that is not reflecting back much light from our headlights. No wonder we don’t easily see that moose crossing up ahead.

The next time your lights fall on an animal and you see the distinctive “deer-in-the-headlights” reflection, you will know that particular animal is normally active at night. You’ll also know they have a microscopically thin tapetum lucidum in the back of their eyeball that aids in their night vision.

David Wartinbee, Ph.D, J.D., is a biology professor at Kenai Peninsula College’s Kenai River Campus. He is writing a series of columns on the ecology of the Cook Inlet watershed.

SPRING MUSHROOMS

There are over 100 fairly common spring mushrooms in our area (NYC metro area) – that is, occurring between March 21 and June 21. Some of these occur in great numbers. Some are choice edibles. A few are poisonous. One is deadly. Most are just not edible or palatable 0r chewable. Learn them one at a time and you’ll see how quickly you can become familiar with much of our spring mushroom flora…………..

——————————————————-

CENTRAL PARK MUSHROOM HUNT – JUNE 14th

GILLED MUSHROOMS included AMANITA flavorubescens PLUTEUS cervinus, PSATHYRELLA candolleana, RUSSULA sp., SCHIZOPHYLLUM commune, STROPHARIA rugosoannulata, and a few still to be identified

NON-GILLED MUSHROOMS included: XYLARIA polymorpha, STEREUM ostrea, PHELLINUS robiniae, GANODERMA curtisii, USTULINA deusta, and others…….

———————————————————

The mushrooms below are arranged in two large groups – ASCOMYCETES and BASIDIOMYCETES.

The ASCOMYCETES include the CUP FUNIG, the MORELS, the DEAD MAN’S FINGERS and BLACK KNOT OF CHERRY

The BASIDIOMYCETES include the POLYPORES, the GILLED MUSHROOMS, the BOLETES, the JELLY FUNGI, and the PUFFBALLS

Below the photographs of spring mushrooms, there is a TEST that you can take. See how well you do. (Answers will follow in a June posting).

———————————————————-

ASCOMYCETES

CUP FUNGUS – Sarcoscypha coccinea – not edible – on sticks on the ground near ponds or lakes

————————————————————-

MORELS – Morchella esculenta (americana) – Choice Edible – on the ground under old elms, apple trees, tulip poplar

————————————————————-

Immature DEAD MAN’S FINGERS – Xylaria polymorpha – not edible – at the base of hardwood trees, often apple or crabapple

————————————————————-

BLACK KNOT OF CHERRY – Apiosporina morbosa – not edible – parasitic, on cherry branches

————————————————————-

BASUDUINTCETES

POLYPORES

DRYAD’S SADDLE (PHEASANT BACK) – Polyporus squamosus – good edible when young – on wood

————————————————————-

CHICKEN MUSHROOM – Laetiporus sulphureus – CHOICE EDIBLE MUSHROOM – on wood of hardwood trees – fruiting from May through October

————————————————————-

GILLED MUSHROOMS

PLAYGROUND MUSHROOM – Agaricus bitorquis – choice edible – on the ground, often bare ground, grassy areas, wood chips, etc.

————————————————————-

OYSTER MUSHROOM – Pleurotus ostreatus – Choice edible – on wood

————————————————————

DUNCE CAP – Conocybe lactea – not edible – common in grass in late May/early June

———————————————————-

LAWN MOWER’S MUSHROOM – Panaeolina foenisecii – not edible – common in grass in late May/early June

———————————————-

Baby INKY CAPS – Coprinus macaques complex – Edible, good in soup, as duxelles, etc. – on wood, base of stumps, wood chips

————————————————————-

DEADLY GALERINA – Galerina (autumnalis) marginata – a very common Little Brown Mushroom – on decayed logs – DEADLY POISONOUS

—————————————————————

FAWN MUSHROOM – Pluteus cervinus complex – edible when young – on wood or buried wood

————————————————————-

WINE CAP – Stropharia rugosoannulata – Good edible when young – always in wood chips

————————————————————

BOLETES

CRACKED CAP BOLETE – Xerocomellus chrysenteron – first bolete to appear (late May-early June) – edible – on the ground under oaks (mycorrhizal)

—————————————————————

JELLY FUNGI

WOOD-EAR – Auricularia auricula complex – edible, best in soup – one wood – common in late winter and spring

—————————————————————-

WITCHES’ BUTTER – Tremella mesenteric complex – edible but not incredible – on wood

———————————————————————-

SPRING MUSHROOMS 2017………………SPRING MUSHROOMS 2017…………………SPRING MUSHROOMS 2017

A MULTIPLE CHOICE TEST –

1, Name 3 gilled mushrooms that grow on wood: a) Agaricus bitorquis, b) Pleurotus ostreatus, c) Coprinus micaceus, d) Morchella esculenta, e) Flammulina velutipes, f) Ganoderma applanatum

2. Name 3 gilled mushrooms that grow on the ground: a) Agaricus bitorquis, b) Pleurotus ostreatus, c) Conocybe lactea, d) Panaeolina foenisecii, e) Pluteus cervinus, f) Stropharia rugoso-annulata

3. What color is the spore print of Pluteus cervinus: a) white, b) yellowish, c) pinkish brown or brownish pink, d) ochre brown, e) purple brown, f) black

4. Name one deadly Little Brown Mushroom: a) Agaricus bitorquis, b) Pleurotus ostreatus, c) Gallerina autumnalis (marginata) , d) Morchella esculenta, e) Pluteus cervinus, f) Flammulina velutipes

5. Name one spring lawn mushroom: a) Pluteus cervinus, b) Flammulina velutipes, c) Stropharia rugoso-annulata, d) Marasmius oreades, e) Morchella esculenta, f) Pleurotus ostreatus

6. Name one inky cap mushroom that is not safe to eat: a) Coprinus comatus, b) Coprinus micaceus, c) Coprinus atramentarius, d) Coprinus plicatilis, e) Coprinus disseminatus

7. What’s the name of the common cultivated mushrooms?: a) Agaricus campestris, b) Agaricus bitorquis, c) Agaricus bisporus, d) Agaricus arvensis, e) Agaricus placomyces

8. Name one spring species of Agaricus: a) Agaricus arvensis, b) Agaricus bitorquis, c) Agaricus crocodilians, d), Agaricus placomyces, e) Agaricus bernaradii

9. Where would I look to find Wine Cap mushrooms?: a) in lawns, b) on trees, c) in wood chip mulch, d) in manure, e) in deep conifer woods

10. Where would I look to find oyster mushrooms: a) in a lawn, b) in swampy ground, c) on trees and logs, d) in manure, e) on other mushrooms

11. Name one common spring polypore: a) Polyporus squamnosus, b) Grifola frondosa, c) Meripilus sumstinei

12. Where should I look to find morels? a) on elm trees, b) under elm trees, c) in manure piles, d) in swamps, e) only at Whole Foods

13. How can I tell a morel from a false morel?: a) only one is brown, b) only one comes up in the spring, c) only one has a hollow stem, d) only one smells like cherry vanilla, e) only one is an Ascomycete

14. Have you ever eaten wood-ear mushrooms? a) yes or b) no ????

15. What kind of mushroom is a Turkey-tail?: a) a jelly fungus, b) a gilled mushroom, c) a polypore, d) an Ascomycete, e) a puffball

16. What kind of mushroom is a Reishi mushroom?: a) a gilled mushroom, b) a polypore, c) a jelly fungus, d) an Ascomycete, e) a puffball

17. Where would I look to find Chaga?: a) on an elm, b) on an oak, c) on a birch, d) on a pine, e) on a tulip-poplar

18. What is a Caterpillar Fungus, and is it edible?: Cordyceps is the traditional genus for these mushrooms that parasitize overwintering caterpillars, and it is edible but primarily used as a medicine

19. Where would I look to find Black Knot fungus?: a) on an elm tree, b) on an oak tree, c) on a cherry tree, d) on a poplar tree, e) on a ginkgo tree

20. Are mushrooms edible raw, and if not, why not?: NO (if very few exceptions, mushrooms are highly indigestible raw)

21. Give one example of one ectomycorrhizal mushroom?: a) Coprinus commatus, b) Agaricus bitorquis, c) Pleurotus osteratus, d) Pluteus cervinus, e) Boletus chrysenteron

Cover photo courtesy of grandviewoutdoors.com

If you hunt whitetails, it should be no secret to you that whitetails communicate through scent they leave behind. Whether detecting danger, bucks seeking a breeding doe or a doe locating a hiding fawn, whitetail deer use scent for much of their survival and social interaction. Scraping behavior of whitetails, is one of the CHIEF ways whitetail bucks leave scent behind throughout the year.

Bucks work scrape’s overhanging branches, called a licking branch, throughout the year, often times more than they work the scrape itself. But their most aggressive scraping of these areas occur from October to December when testosterone levels are highest. When a whitetail buck makes a scrape he does so where there is an attractive branch hanging along a roadway, at the edge of a field, on a well-worn trail, or in a random area he’s walking through. In most cases a buck begins the scraping process by rubbing his forehead, preorbital, and nasal glands on the branch and in some cases will actually lick and chew on the overhanging branch. Once done, most bucks will paw the leaves and other debris from the ground under the branch, then urinate into the pawed-out earth.

Photo Courtesy of americanhunter.org

The process usually takes less than two minutes. During this time, however, a buck will leave liberal amounts of scent behind. Scraping, like rubbing, allows a buck to make his presence known. It’s a calling card of sorts; a post on a whitetail bulletin board. Research suggests that scraping is primarily a buck activity. Does have been known to work a scrape from time to time but they most frequently work the licking branch above the scrape. Bucks almost always work both.

Scrapes can be broken down into 3 different categories, though the names or classification of these are often debated. The are Boundary, Secondary and Primary Scrapes.

Boundary scrapes: Boundary scrapes are made by traveling bucks moving through his territory. These scrapes will show up along field edges, fence rows and roads that aren’t too busy.

Secondary scrapes: Secondary scrapes are made my bucks as more of an impulse. These are far more random and a result of the buck “feeling the need” to make a scrape. Call it impulse, hormones or whatever you’d like but these scrapes are less frequent, spiritic and typically not a good target for hunting over.

Primary scrapes: These are the scrapes that hunters need to target. These scrapes are the epitome of whitetail scrapes, with some having the potential of becoming very attractive to whitetail bucks. These scrapes can be found in strategic locations—inside corners of agriculture fields, ridge lines, pinch points and especially along well-worn trails between bedding and feeding areas during the rut. Find these primary scrapes and hang a stand!

Bucks work licking branches 365 days to leave their scent, scraping behavior peaks during the 30 day window leading up to peak rut, especially during the last 10 days. Once breeding kicks in scraping behavior drops off drastically. Scraping will continue during the post rut but at a significantly lower rate than occurs leading up to that point.